East Timor Independence
p> Indonesian invasion Indonesia invaded the territory in December 1975, relying on US
diplomatic support and arms, used illegally but with secret authorisation
from Washington; new arms shipments were sent under the cover of an
official "embargo". There was no need to threaten bombing or even sanctions. It would have
sufficed for the US and its allies to withdraw active participation and
inform their associates in the Indonesian military command that the
atrocities must be terminated and the territory granted the right of self-
determination, as upheld by the United Nations and the international court
of justice. “We cannot undo the past, but should at least be willing to
recognise what we have done, and face the moral responsibility of saving
the remnants and providing reparations” - a small gesture of compensation
for terrible crimes. Many were immediately killed, while their villages were burned down to
the ground. Others run to the mountains in the heart of their land, and
organized a resistance movement. These brave peasants - and their sons -
have opposed the barbarian indonesian soldiers for 23 years now. Torture,
rape, all kinds of physical, sexual and psychological violations, violent
repression and brutal murder have been the daily life of the Maubere people
(the original people of East Timor) since. Even before president Habibie's surprise call for a referendum this
year, the army anticipated threats to its rule, including its control over
East Timor's resources, and undertook careful planning with "the aim, quite
simply... to destroy a nation". The plans were known to western intelligence. The army recruited
thousands of West Timorese and brought in forces from Java. More ominously,
the military command sent units of its dreaded US-trained Kopassus special
forces and, as senior military adviser, General Makarim, a US-trained
intelligence specialist with "a reputation for callous violence". Terror and destruction began early in the year. The army forces
responsible have been described as "rogue elements" in the west. There is
good reason, however, to accept Bishop Belo's assignment of direct
responsibility to General Wiranto. It appears that the militias have been
managed by elite units of Kopassus, the "crack special forces unit" that
had "been training regularly with US and Australian forces until their
behaviour became too much of an embarrassment for their foreign friends". These forces adopted the tactics of the US Phoenix programme in the
Vietnam war, which killed tens of thousands of peasants and much of the
indigenous South Vietnamese leadership, as well as "the tactics employed by
the Contras" in Nicaragua. The state terrorists were "not simply going
after the most radical pro-independence people, but... the moderates, the
people who have influence in their community." Well before the referendum, the commander of the Indonesian military
in Dili, Colonel Tono Suratman, warned of what was to come: "If the pro-
independents do win... all will be destroyed. It will be worse than 23
years ago". An army document of early May, when international agreement on
the referendum was reached, ordered "massacres should be carried out from
village to village after the announcement of the ballot if the pro-
independence supporters win". The independence movement "should be
eliminated from its leadership down to its roots". Citing diplomatic, church and militia sources, the Australian press
reported that "hundreds of modern assault rifles, grenades and mortars are
being stockpiled, ready for use if the autonomy option is rejected at the
ballot box". All of this was understood by Indonesia's "foreign friends", who also
knew how to bring the terror to an end, but preferred evasive and ambiguous
reactions that the Indonesian generals could easily interpret as a "green
light" to carry out their work. The sordid history must be viewed against the background of US-
Indonesia relations in the postwar era. The rich resources of the
archipelago, and its critical strategic location, guaranteed it a central
role in US global planning. These factors lie behind US efforts 40 years
ago to dismantle Indonesia, perceived as too independent and too democratic
- even permitting participation of the poor peasants. These factors account
for western support for the regime of killers and torturers who emerged
from the 1965 coup. Their achievements were seen as a vindication of Washington's wars in
Indochina, motivated in large part by concerns that the "virus" of
independent nationalism might "infect" Indonesia, to use Kissinger-like
rhetoric. The recent convulsions inside Indonesia - with its people finally
crying for freedom and democracy - and the Nobel Peace Prize of 1996 -
shared between Bishop Belo, a dominican supporting the Maubere people in
Dili, and Jose Ramos Horta, a politician and activist who represents the
Resistance historic leader, Xanana Gusmao, imprisioned in Indonesia for a
20-year sentence - have brought a new hope to the fight of this martyr
people. Also, economic crisis hitting south-east Asia has shaken the
dictatorship in Jakarta more than ever. The winds of change blowing
throughout Indonesia started to hit East Timor... Introduction to Indonesia Indonesia is the country with the more of Muslims in the world which
means 87 per cent of 180 million habitants. Nevertheless, the major part of
the declared Muslims mix their faith in Allah with animistic or Hindu-
Buddhist beliefs. These are reminiscences of the Indian colonization that
would be interrupted with the penetration of Islam in the 16th century,
generally superficial and incomplete. Due to the insular configuration, composed by 13 677 islands, 3 000
inhabited, and with an approximate extension of 1/8 the perimeter of Earth,
Indonesia faces problems of national unity. Being the fifth most populous
nation, 2/3 are concentrated in only the fifth larger island, Java, where
the density is one of the highest. The solution passes inevitably by birth
control and transmigration to territories such as Papua New Guinea,
recently East Timor but also in between with the evident purpose of
dissolving local cultures in the predominant Javanese which is only one
amongst 360 tribal and ethno-linguistic groups and more than 250 different
languages and dialects. The Dutch colonial domain had been massively based in Java, with the
rest of the archipelago had developed very unequally. From the rigid
Islamic areas of North Sumatra to the tribes of Borneo or the Christian
islands of the east, a variety of economic and social systems experienced
very distinct problems for their progress. Independence of Indonesia and Sukarno At the time of Indonesia's proclamation of independence in 1945,
President Sukarno defined an ideological base for the state -- the "Panca
sila" (meaning "five virtues") -- to be followed by all citizens and sworn
by the social organizations. Main principles imposed were the adoption of
Indonesian "Bahasa" language and the acceptance of one among five religions
-- Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Hinduism and Buddhism -- forbidding
the animist cults and other traditional practices. Thus "Panca sila" was
assumed as an instrument of governmental control and a mean to javanize the
diverse cultures. But not without much internal opposition. Illuded with the possibility
of the creation of an official Islamic state, when Suharto reached to
power, Communist administrators and Islamic movements supported the
Revolution, but what they didn't expect was the minor concessions offered,
and once annihilated the Communist Party, an “important preoccupation of
the government has been to control, domesticate or destroy the most
orthodox and active Muslim factions” (Prof. A. Barbedo de Magalhгes, Oporto
University). Since then they oftenly erupt in riots against the military
aristocracy, basically syncretic in matter of religion. Besides reaffirming the "Panca sila", in 1982 Suharto introduced the
Law of the Associations which would fasten the strain on political,
religious and social associations as it increased the powers of the
administration to dismiss or impute directors to the aggregations, to
destroy or agglutinate them in others more vast and controlled by the
militaries. Social and Political instability is patent in public insurrections in
favor of democracy, which in September of 1984 culminated with the killing
of 60 Muslims and imprisonment of important personalities such as of former
governors that defied an inquiry to the incident. Neo-colonialism in Indonesia? Many authors mention that Sukarno had a
dream: the formation of a great Indonesia comprising the totality of the
ancient Dutch East Indies, inclusive the non-Indonesian population. For
this reason had he renounced to the federate structures initially conceived
for the creation of the United States of Indonesia -- thus betraying the
agreement with the Dutch for the transfer of sovereignty --, in favor of an
unitary constitution, although still provisional. The new direction was
taken in August of 1950, three months after an unilateral declaration of
independence by the South Moluccas. The first elections, free and democratic in fact, would be held in
1955, but disputed by more or less 170 parties! Their differences naturally
brought difficulties to the functioning of the parliamentary democracy. On
one hand, between the exponents of pre-Islamic syncretism of the "Nahdatul
Ulama" (NU) and the orthodox Moslems of the "Masyumi", which's vital
strength came from the outside -- West Sumatra and North Celebes besides
Occidental Java (Sundanese ethnic origin). On the other hand, between the
Nationalist Party (PNI) and the Communist Party (PKI), based in Java, and
these with the Moslems. The inefficiency of the administration, which passed through seven
governments since 1949 to '57, and the rivalry engaged by the parties
alone, in contrast with the heroism of the Revolution of August 17th, after
all, the concentration of decision and power in Java as restrictor of the
economic, social and cultural development aroused at the end tension in the
exterior islands. In February of 1957, Sukarno criticized the Western liberal democracy
because unadapted to Indonesian particularity. He interfered more in the
constitutional processes and appeals to his concept of "Guided Democracy",
founded on indigenous procedures: the important questions should be decided
through prolonged deliberations ("musyawarah") in order to obtain consensus
("mukafat"). This was the practice in the village and the same model ought
to be adopted for the nation. Sukarno proposed a government formed by the
four main parties and a national council represented by parties and
functional groups in which, under the guidance of the president (himself),
consensus would express itself. In spite of the charisma gained by Sukarno as father of the country
and mentor of the principle "unity in diversity", he was unable to avoid
the proclamations of the martial law in March of 1957 as a response to the
regional dissidences which reached their peak. At the end of the year a further set-back was brought by the defeat of
a motion for the renewal of negotiations concerning the destiny of West New
Guinea. In a series of direct actions across the country, Dutch property
was seized with the Indonesian government taking over. In the beginning of
1958 West Sumatra claimed for the constitution of a new central government
under the leadership of Hatta, a moderate and historic figure of the
Revolution, from the start vice-president of Sukarno up until two years ago
when he resigned because disagreeing with his policy. Ignored the appeal of
the Sumatrese a new revolutionary government was formed, supported by
leaders of the Masyumi Party, including the ex-Prime Ministers Natsir
(September 1950 -- March '51) and Harahap (August '55 -- March '56). The
military commandant of the North Celebes joined the initiative, yet most
striking was CIA's assistance with armament including aircrafts. Suppression of the revolt was nevertheless soon accomplished, and with
the regions undermined, the parties discredited and the prestige of the
victorious army elevated, Sukarno resumed the idea of Guided Democracy in
partnership with the military. Meanwhile, the army chief of staff A.
Nasution had committed himself to the thought that the return to the
revolutionary constitution of 1945 (presidential-type) would offer the best
means for implementing the principles of deliberation, consensus and
functional representation. Sukarno urged this course in a speech to the
Constituent Assembly, elected in 1955 to draft a permanent constitution.
Despite failing the approval of the necessary two-thirds for majority, he
introduced it through a presidential decree of dubious legality. Indonesia's domestic as well as foreign diplomacy is difficult to
conceive in terms other than in the context of neo-colonialism. It
certainly is incompatible with the spirit of the Afro-Asian Conference of
Bandung held in Java, in 1955. Among twenty nine countries consensus was
reached in order to condemn colonialism “in all it's forms of
manifestation”. As it seems, imperialism isn't condemnable so long the
territories comes from an ancient colony. Like the annexation of the
Moluccan islands (1950-52) and in 1969 the also former Dutch West New
Guinea, long pretended. The last was integrated after an Act of Free Choice
sanctioned by UN. In truth, many journalists and observers would consider
the process orchestrated but it had already been sealed. Today it is
remembered as perhaps the most unfortunate episode UN's history. In both regions, as well as in other islands of the Pacific,
population claim Melanesian ancestrality, not identifying themselves with
Indonesia, predominantly Malaysian. The country has always been tormented by regional rebellions. From the
perpetrated by Islamic fundamentalist movements, even in Java (where in the
district of Acheh, a Moslem state practically subsisted between 1948 and
1962), Sumatra and Celebes as we've seen but also Kalimantan, to those
involving Christian groups as in the South Moluccas. Still in 1984 the
Movement for the Liberation of Papua erupted in attacks against the main
cities of the territory, hoisting their flag in the capital opposite to the
Regional Parliament. The power of Sukarno depended along the years of the preservation of
the equilibrium between the army and the Communist Party (PKI). The period
assisted to the crescent popularity of the communists due to the consistent
protection moved by the President in face of the incursions of the
militaries. he opposed to the prohibitions of congresses and editorials,
banished political organizations patronized by the military to blacken the
PKI, placing some of their militants in political posts. Many analysts
think that Sukarno was preparing the path for the rise of the communists to
the power. Others say that his action intended to assure a the permanently
threatened equilibrium The coup of Suharto and the military. On the night of September 30,
1965, a group of subaltern officials based at Halim Air Base attempted a
coup d'йtat to anticipate what they alleged to be the take-over of a pro-
Western council of generals. But by following morning the Strategic Reserve
of the Army Forces (KOSTRAD), commanded by Suharto, had concluded a
successful counter-attack. For specialist Benedict Anderson, of Cornell
University, it seems odd that Suharto, who would gather the reins of power
into his hands, hadn't been aimed at by the "30th of September Movement"
which assassinated six army generals (while a seventh, A. Nasution,
escaped). With propaganda that implicated important nationalist and communist
politicians in the first stroke and the estimulation of the widely spread
resentment of the pro-Chinese PKI was object of among the Indonesian
Islamic groups, the militaries gradually assumed power. Suharto begun to
maintain the already wasted and sickened Sukarno in a fictional presidency,
as a symbol of national unity until by decree emptying his legal authority,
in March 11, 1966. The next semester would be fatal for more than half a
million Chinese and Indonesian besides an excess of 200 thousand political
prisoners which altogether formed one of the greatest Communist parties of
the World. The wave of hysteria was such that they were pointed out and
oftenly even executed by their proper neighbor civilians in the villages. Formation of East-Timorese political associations During Portuguese dictatorship, civilians were prohibited to gather
for political discussions. But since the 60's an educated elite with
nationalist aspirations begun to reune clandistinely and vehicle some
principles in catholic press. Three weeks after the democratic Revolution,
formation of political associations was incentivated, in the process of
decolonization. Immediatly UDT was founded, wanting to prolong Portugal's
presence in view of a progressive autonomy. ASDT, future Fretilin, called
for radical independence, while Apodeti, supported by Indonesia, for the
integration of East Timor in the neighbour power. Although the changes acrossing the metropolis were of little immediate
effect in the rural society, they had profound impact among the elites of
East Timor, particularly in the administrator sectors, centered in the
cities and specially in Dili They polarized the opposition to certain
aspects of the Portuguese rule. Since the 60s, an educated elite with nationalist aspirations began to
emerge, often product of the catholic schools and particularly from the
seminaries of Dare (outside Dili) and S. Jose in the colony of Macao.
Discussions involved small groups of students and administrators that
gathered clandestinely in the capital. The main escapes of their ideas were
catholic publications of reduced circulation like Seara, which was closed
down by the political police PIDE. The conclusions reached are considered general and vagrant. Subjects
like traditional marriage and the educational system were debated but not
much was proposed as a global critic and alternatives. Anyhow, this collective of student-administrators and higher level
bureaucrats, as well as important rural proprietors would constitute the
basis of the two main political parties: UDT and ASDT/Fretilin. Three weeks after the Revolution 25th of April, the Governor of East
Timor created the Commission for the Autodetermination which's intentions
were to bring out to legality all the incipient political associations. The parties UDT (Timor Democratic Union). This became the first party, was also
the most popular for some months. The initial declaration, of May 11th,
made apology of democratic principles, distribution of revenues and, the
fulcral aspect, a progressive autonomy materialized with an increasing
participation of the Timorese but always in the light of the Portuguese
flag, to culminate with the integration of East Timor in a Portuguese
language community. The political platform as conceived by first president
Mбrio Carrascalгo was to hold Portugal's presence as far as possible
without putting aside the option for independence. But although having
presented a cohesive front at start, the course of events in the months
followed would evidence different susceptibilities towards a same problem.
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